Simulating Non-Deductive Reasoning
نویسنده
چکیده
T h i s paper i s i n t e n d e d t o d raw a t t e n t i o n t o a l i t e r a t u r e i n P h i l o s o p h y t h a t w o u l d b e o f g r e a t use and i n t e r e s t t o r e s e a r c h e r s a t t e m p t i n g t o s i m u l a t e n o n d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g . Two m o d e l s o f such r e a s o n i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d , and t h e k e r n e l r o l e o f t h e c o n c e p t o f e x p l a n a t i o n common t o them b o t h i s r e v e a l e d . F i n a l l y , t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l i n s i g h t s t o c o m p u t i n g b y a p p e a l i n g t o S c r i v e n ' s c o m p r e h e n s i o n t h e o r e m w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e s a l i n k b e t w e e n t h e c o n c e p t s o f e x p l a n a t i o n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g and p r o c e s s i n g e f f i c i e n c y under c e r t a i n c o n s t r a i n t s . 1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n A f a i r l y r e c e n t s u r v e y f o u n d t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s i n A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e c o n s i d e r e d P h i l o s o p h y o f more i m m e d i a t e r e l e v a n c e t o t h e i r work t h a n P s y c h o l o g y ( N e w e l l , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h i s i s a p l a u s i b l e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d a d i s c i p l i n e t h a t i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e m e n t a l , w i t h k n o w l e d g e and w i t h r e a s o n i n g . I t i s a r e a s o n a b l e hope t h a t t h e body o f p h i l o s o p h i c r u m i n a t i o n s a b o u t t h e s e d o m a i n s , t h o u g h a r e u n i v o c a l , w i l l h e l p t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f p r e c i s e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s i n t e l l i g e n t p r o g r a m s a r e s u p posed t o e x h i b i t , i . e . , s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e b e h a v i o r t o b e s i m u l a t e d . The f i r s t two o f t h e t h r e e p h i l o s o p h i c p r e o c c u p a t i o n s m e n t i o n e d above have f a i r l y o l d t i t l e s , p h i l o s o p h y o f m ind and e p i s t o m o l o g y , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The t h i r d c o n c e r n , t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f r e a s o n i n g p r o p e r l y b e l o n g s t o l o g i c . I n what f o l l o w s , h o w e v e r , I w i s h t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o and d raw upon a l i t e r a t u r e t h a t i s n o t p r e c i s e l y a t home i n any one t i t l e d f i e l d o f p h i l o s o p h y . The l i t e r a t u r e i n q u e s t i o n i s one c o n c e r n e d at a c o n c e p t u a l and n o t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l e v e l w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f r e a s o n i n g , o r d i n a r y r e a s o n i n g f r o m e v i d e n c e t o h y p o t h e s e s , a c t i o n s and p r e d i c t i o n s , w h i c h i s b y and l a r g e n o n d e d u c t i v e . A t t e m p t s t o s i m u l a t e such r e a s o n i n g t y p i c a l l y d e v o l v e t o a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n s t r u c t n o n d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g as a d e d u c t i v e sys tem w i t h e x o t i c p r o p e r t i e s such a s p r o b a b i l i s t i c t r u t h v a l u e s o r n o n m o n o t o n i c i t y . A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t a b s t r a c t t r a i t s w h i c h p rog rams s i m u l a t i n g i n t e l l e c t i o n must r e c k o n w i t h t h a t a r e p r o b a b l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a s t r a i g h t w a r d d e d u c t i v e s y s t e m . I t i s o n l y b y a v o i d i n g d e d u c t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s o f such r e a s o n i n g such a s i t s v a l u e dependance and i t s i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h c o n c e p t o f e x p l a n a t i o n i s r e v e a l e d . 2 . D e s c r i b i n g N o n d e d u c t i o n I t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o d e s c r i b e n o n d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g a s a k i n d o f d e p a r t u r e f rom f u l l d e d u c t i o n . T h i s i s done b y p o s i n g some p a r a d i g m a rgumen t schemes a p p r o p r i a t e t o g i v e n p r o b l e m a r e a s and t h e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e s t r a t a g m s t h a t ensue when one o f t h e p r e m i s e s o f t h e model a rgumen t i s f a l s e . 1 w i l l b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h two such p a r a d i g m s , one f o r e v i d e n t i a l r e a s o n i n g and one f o r r e a s o n i n g t o a c t i o n s . 3 . E v i d e n t i a l R e a s o n i n g The p a r a d i g m a r g u m e n t i s , ( 1 ) X e x p l a i n s ( w h y ) Y ( i s t r u e ) . (2 ) N o t h i n g b u t X w o u l d e x p l a i n (why) Y ( i s t r u e ) . (3) Y i s e x p l a i n e d by s o m e t h i n g o r o t h e r . (C) X ( i s t r u e ) R o u g h l y , t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e p a r a d i g m i s r e l e v a n t i s one i n w h i c h some f a c t Y i n v i t i n g e x p l a n a t i o n i s known and some o t h e r f a c t X , i f t r u e , w o u l d e x p l a i n Y . W i t h p r e m i s e s ( 1 ) , (2) and (3) t h e
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